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Antimetabolites
compounds that are competitive inhibitors for bacterial metabolic enzymes
- compounds that are competitive inhibitors for bacterial metabolic enzymes
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Gene Therapy
Use of products containing genetic material (e.g., pDNA, antisense DNA, siRNA) to treat a disease or condition, or to modify or manipulate the expression of genetic material or to alter the biological prop- erties of living cells.
Generic
Drug(s) or formulation(s) of drug(s) or dosage forms, which no longer have patent protection.
Granules
Powder particles, which have been aggregated to form larger irregular particles, usually of 0.5–2 mm diameter.
Granulation
Process in which powder particles are made to aggregate to larger particles called granules.
Hydrate
Crystalline form of a compound in which water molecules are part of the crystal structure.
Hydrophile–lipophile Balance System
Empirical scale (of 0–20) used to classify surfactants and emulsifying agents.
Implantation
Insertion or grafting of a biological, living, inert, or radioactive material into the body.
Implants
Small sterile usually polymeric matrices, pellets, or particles for insertion or implanting into the body by surgical means or by injection to help achieve sustained release.
Inactivation Factor (if)
Number that expresses the reduction in the numbers of a microorganism, brought about by a sterilization process.
Inhalation Therapy
Administration of drugs directly to the respiratory tract, mostly by aerosols.
Injection
Delivery of a generally sterile liquid medication into the body, or a vessel, tissue, or organ via syringe and needle.
Inverted Micelle
Reversible formation of association colloids from surfactants in nonpolar solvents leads to aggregates termed inverted (or inverse, reverse, or reversed) micelles.
Liposome
Artificial spherical lipid bilayer droplet formed mainly from phospholipids having a core of water phase, small enough to form a relatively stable dispersion in aqueous media and with potential use in drug delivery.
Loading Dose
Initial, typically larger than the maintenance dose of a drug given to a patient at the start of pharmaco- therapy.
Lozenge
Tablet, which does not contain a disintegrant and which is sucked to dissolve in the mouth to produce either a local (e.g., antiseptic) or systemic (e.g., vitamins) effect.
Lubricant
Used as processing aid in tablet and capsule manufacturing, to facilitate the movement of the formulation into the dye and punch and to reduce the energy of compression.
Lyophilic
Denotes a dispersed phase having a pronounced affinity for the dispersion medium.
Matrix Formulation
Specific case of drug embedding in insoluble excipients (typically in a polymer) in order to achieve ex- tended release.
Maximum Additive Concentration
Maximum concentration of a drug, which will form a clear solution with a given concentration of surfactant.
Maximum Safe Concentration
Concentration of a drug in the plasma, above which side effects are likely to occur in a patient.
Micelle
Aggregates of colloidal dimensions (i.e., association of colloids) formed reversibly from amphiphile molecules.
Microfiltration
Pressure-driven, membrane-based separation process in which particles and dissolved macromolecules larger than 0.1 micrometer are rejected.
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (mic)
Lowest concentration of an antibacterial drug necessary to inhibit the growth of a microorganism.
Modified Release
Release of a drug from a dosage form that it is not immediate (e.g., sustained release, retarded release, delayed-action preparations, controlled release, extended release, etc.).
Multicompartment Formulation
Dosage form (capsule, tablet) comprising several elements (e.g., microspheres or coated pellets) difering in the rate of drug release.
Multilayer Tablet
Consists of several different layers that are compressed on top of each other, to form a single tablet composed of two or more layers.
Nanoparticles
Microscopic particle whose size is measured in nanometers, often restricted to so-called nanosized particles also called ultrafine particles.
Nebulizer
Device that disperses liquids to aerosols for therapeutic use by inhalation through a mask.
Ointment
Greasy, semi-solid preparation for external application, often anhydrous, containing dissolved or dis- persed medicaments.
One-compartment Model
Kinetic model, where the whole body is thought of as a single compartment in which a substance is dis- tributed rapidly, achieving an equilibrium between blood and tissue immediately.
Onset Of Drug Action
Time required to achieve the minimum effective plasma concentration following administration of the dosage form.
Pelletization
Process of agglomeration that converts fine powders or granules of bulk drugs and excipients into small, free-flowing, spherical, or semi-spherical units, referred to as pellets.
Pharmaceutics
Science of preparation of drugs, dosage forms, and drug delivery systems taking into account the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug as well as its physical and chemical properties.
Polymorph
Solid material that exists at least in two different molecular arrangements, i.e., distinctly different crystal species.
Polymorphic Transition
Transition of a solid crystalline phase to another phase having the same chemical composition but a different crystal structure.
Powder(s)
Dry solid material consisting of many, usually free flowing, fine particles. Conventionally, the title “powder” should be restricted to powder mixes for internal use and alternative terms are used for other powdered formulations presented in this way, e.g., dusting powders, which are for external use.
Preformulation
Exploratory activity that begins early in pharmaceutics, involving studies designed to determine the compatibility of excipients with the active substance for a biopharmaceutical; physicochemical and bioanalytical investigation in support of promising experimental formulations.
Prodrug
Chemically modified form of a pharmacologically active compound that has to undergo biochemical or chemical transformation before exhibiting its pharmacological effect.
Pseudopolymorph
Different crystalline form(s) of a solvated compound that differ in the identity and/or the stoichiometry of the solvating molecule.
Relative Bioavailability
Measure of the fraction of a given drug that is absorbed intact into the systemic circulation from a dosage form, relative to a recognized, clinically proven, standard dosage form of that drug.
Repeat Action Dosage Form
Tablet or capsule distinguished from a sustained-release dosage form, by the fact that it releases the me- dicinal agent, or part of it, at any time other than promptly after administration as opposed to a slow, controlled manner.
Sieving
Process that differentiates or separates solid particles according to their size using a meshed or perforated device.
Slugging
Method by which powder particles are compressed into a large tablet, called a slug, which is subse- quently dry-screened and compressed into a tablet.
Sol-gel Transition
Transition of a suspension of solid, usually colloid, particles in a liquid (sol) to an apparent solid, jelly- like material (gel).
Solubilizing Agents
Additives making a substance soluble or more soluble, especially in water.
Solvate
Crystalline form of a compound in which one or more solvent molecules are part of the crystal struc- ture.
Spheronization
Process of making dense, spherical pellets by means of special spheronizing or pelletizing equipment.
Stent
Scaffold placed into narrowed, diseased vessels (mainly coronary arteries) or a device implanted in a vessel used to help keep it open.
Sterility
Condition of being aseptic, or statistically free from living microorganisms and their spores.
Sublingual Tablets
Usually small, flat, and soft tablets, which are designed to be placed under the tongue to allow direct absorption of the active ingredient through the mucosa for systemic effect.
Suppositories
Dosage form, semi-solid, used for the administration of drugs via the rectal route, for systemic or local effect. When application is via other routes (e.g., the vaginal route), suppositories are termed differ- ently, inserts, pessaries, etc.
Surfactant (surface-active Agent)
Substance that alters the conditions prevailing at an interface, causing, for example, a marked decrease in the surface tension of water or nonaqueous solvents.
Syrup
Liquid preparation of high sugar concentration with or without medicinal and additional flavouring substances.
Systemic
Effect, relating to the entire organism as distinguished from any of its individual parts.
Tablet
Solid dosage form compressed into a specific shape containing medicinal substances with or without suitable diluents.
Tablet Coating
Solid layers based typically on cellulose derivatives and may include plasticizers and pigments.
Therapeutic Index
Ratio between toxic and therapeutic doses (the higher the ratio, the greater the safety of the therapeutic dose).
Transplantation
The removal of tissue from one part of the body or from one individual and its implantation or insertion in another.
Acid-fast Stain
A stain that differentiates cells that have waxy mycolic acids in their gram-positive cell walls
Acidic Dye
a chromophore with a negative charge that attaches to positively charged structures
Acne
A skin disease in which hair follicles or pores become clogged, leading to the formation of comedones and infected lesions
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (aids)
Disease caused by HIV, characterized by opportunistic infections and rare cancers.
Activation Energy
Energy needed to form or break chemical bonds and convert a reactant or reactants to a product or products.
Activator
Protein that increases the transcription of a gene in response to an external stimulus.
Active Carrier
An infected individual who can transmit the pathogen to others regardless of whether symptoms are currently present.
Acute Glomerulonephritis
Inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidney, probably resulting from deposition of immune complexes and an autoimmune response caused by self-antigen mimicry by a pathogen
Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis
A severe form of gingivitis, also called trench mouth.
Acute Otitis Media
Inflammatory disease of the middle ear resulting from a microbial infection.
Adenosine Diphosphate (adp)
nucleotide derivative and relative of ATP containing only one high-energy phosphate bond
Adenosine Monophosphate (amp)
adenine molecule bonded to a ribose molecule and to a single phosphate group, having no high-energy phosphate bonds
Adenosine Triphosphate (atp)
energy currency of the cell; a nucleotide derivative that safely stores chemical energy in its two high-energy phosphate bonds
Aerobic Respiration
use of an oxygen molecule as the final electron acceptor of the electron transport system
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
a method for separating populations of DNA molecules of varying sizes by differential migration rates caused by a voltage gradient through a horizontal gel matrix
Agglutination
binding of different pathogen cells by Fab regions of the same antibody to aggregate and enhance elimination from body
Algae
any of various unicellular and multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms; distinguished from plants by their lack of vascular tissues and organs
Allosteric Activator
molecule that binds to an enzyme’s allosteric site, increasing the affinity of the enzyme’s active site for the substrate(s)
Amino Acid
a molecule consisting of a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, and an amine group bonded to the same carbon. The group bonded to the carbon varies and is represented by an R in the structural formula
Aminoacyl-trna Synthetase
enzyme that binds to a tRNA molecule and catalyzes the addition of the correct amino acid to the tRNA
Aminoglycosides
protein synthesis inhibitors that bind to the 30S subunit and interfere with the ribosome’s proofreading ability, leading to the generation of faulty proteins that insert into and disrupt the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane
Amoebic Dysentery
severe form of intestinal infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica, characterized by severe diarrhea with blood and mucus
Anaerobic Respiration
use of a non-oxygen inorganic molecule, like CO2, nitrate, nitrite, oxidized iron, or sulfate, as the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport system
Annealing
formation of hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide base pairs of two single-stranded complementary nucleic acid sequences
Antibody
Y-shaped glycoprotein molecule produced by B cells that binds to specific epitopes on an antigen
Anticodon
three-nucleotide sequence of a mature tRNA that interacts with an mRNA codon through complementary base pairing
Antigenic Drift
form of slight antigenic variation that occurs because of point mutations in the genes that encode surface proteins
Antigenic Variation
changing of surface antigens (carbohydrates or proteins) such that they are no longer recognized by the host’s immune system
Antimicrobial Drugs
chemical compounds, including naturally produced drugs, semisynthetic derivatives, and synthetic compounds, that target specific microbial structures and enzymes, killing specific microbes or inhibiting their growth
Antimicrobial Peptides (amps)
class of nonspecific, cell-derived chemical mediators with broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties
Antisense Rna
small noncoding RNA molecules that inhibit gene expression by binding to mRNA transcripts via complementary base pairing
Antisense Strand
transcription template strand of DNA; the strand that is transcribed for gene expression
Antiserum
serum obtained from an animal containing antibodies against a particular antigen that was artificially introduced to the animal
Bacteria
any of various unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms typically (but not always) having cell wells that contain peptidoglycan
Bacterial Vaginosis
a condition caused by an overgrowth of bacteria in the vagina that may or may not cause symptoms
Bacteriochlorophylls
green, purple, or blue pigments of bacteria; they are similar to chlorophyll of plants
Bacteriostatic
having the ability to inhibit bacterial growth, generally by means of chemical or physical treatment; reversible inhibition of a microbe’s ability to divide
Basal Body
component of eukaryotic flagellum or cilium composed of nine microtubule triplets and attaches the flagellum or cilium to the cell
Bioremediation
use of microbes to remove xenobiotics or environmental pollutants from a contaminated site
Blastomycosis
fungal disease associated with infections by Blastomyces dermatitidis; can cause disfiguring scarring of the hands and other extremities
Blue-white Screening
a technique commonly used for identifying transformed bacterial cells containing recombinant plasmids using lacZ-encoding plasmid vectors
Blunt Ends
ends of DNA molecules lacking single-stranded complementary overhangs that are produced when some restriction enzymes cut DNA
Burst Size
the number of virions released from a host cell when it is lysed because of a viral infection
Candle Jar
container with a tight-fitting lid in which a burning candle consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, thereby creating an environment suitable for capnophiles
Capsule Staining
a negative staining technique that stains around a bacterial capsule while leaving the capsule clear
Coenzyme
organic molecule required for proper enzyme function that is not consumed and is reusable
Competitive Inhibitor
molecule that binds to an enzyme’s active site, preventing substrate binding
Complementary Base Pairs
base pairing due to hydrogen bonding that occurs between a specific purine and a specific pyrimidine; A bonds with T (in DNA), and C bonds with G
Complementary Dna
a DNA molecule complementary to mRNA that is made through the activity of reverse transcriptase
Complex Virus
virus shape that often includes intricate characteristics not seen in the other categories of capsid
Conidia
asexual fungal spores not enclosed in a sac; produced in a chain at the end of specialized hyphae called conidiophores
Conjunctivitis
inflammation of the conjunctiva, the mucous membrane covering the eye and inside of the eyelid
Cytoplasm
the gel-like material composed of water and dissolved or suspended chemicals contained within the plasma membrane of a cell
Cytoskeleton
a network of filaments or tubules in the eukaryotic cell that provides shape and structural support for cells; aids movement of materials throughout the cell
Cytotoxic T Cells
effector cells of cellular immunity that target and eliminate cells infected with intracellular pathogens through induction of apoptosis
Death Phase (decline Phase)
phase of the growth curve at which the number of dying cells exceeds the number of new cells formed
Decolorizing Agent
a substance that removes a stain, usually from some parts of the specimen
Definitive Host
the preferred host organism for a parasite, in which the parasite reaches maturity and may reproduce sexually
Degeneracy
redundancy in the genetic code because a given amino acid is encoded by more than one nucleotide triplet codon
Degranulation
release of the contents of mast cell granules in response to the cross-linking of IgE molecules on the cell surface with allergen molecules
Dehydration Synthesis
chemical reaction in which monomer molecules bind end to end in a process that results in the formation of water molecules as a byproduct
Denatured Protein
protein that has lost its secondary and tertiary structures (and quaternary structure, if applicable) without the loss of its primary structure
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (dna)
double-stranded nucleic acid composed of deoxyribonucleotides that serves as the genetic material of the cell
Desiccation
method of microbial control involving the removal of water from cells through drying or dehydration
Differential Staining
staining that uses multiple dyes to differentiate between structures or organisms
Diffraction
the changing of direction (bending or spreading) that occurs when a light wave interacts with an opening or barrier
Dimorphic Fungus
a fungus that can take the form of a yeast or a mold, depending on environmental conditions
Dioecious
refers to sexually reproducing organisms in which individuals have either male or female reproductive organs (not both)
Direct Elisa
enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay in which the antigens are immobilized in the well of a microtiter plate; only a single antibody is used in the test
Disease
any condition in which the normal structure or function of the body is damaged or impaired
Disinfectant
antimicrobial chemical applied to a fomite during disinfection that may be toxic to tissues
Dispersion
the separation of light of different frequencies due to different degrees of refraction
Dna Ligase
enzyme that catalyzes the formation of a covalent phosphodiester linkage between the 3’-OH end of one DNA fragment and the 5’ phosphate end of another DNA fragment
Dna Probe
a single-stranded DNA fragment that is complementary to part of the gene (DNA or RNA) of interest
Edema
swelling due to accumulation of fluid and protein in tissue as a result of increased permeability of capillary walls during an inflammatory response;
F Plasmid (fertility)
bacterial plasmid in E. coli containing genes encoding the ability to conjugate, including genes encoding the formation of the conjugation pilus
F+ (donor) Cell
E. coli cell containing the F plasmid, capable of forming a conjugation pilus
Facultative Anaerobe
organism that grows better in the presence of oxygen but can proliferate in its absence
Fermentation
process that uses an organic molecule as a final electron acceptor to regenerate NAD+ from NADH such that glycolysis can continue
Fever
system-wide sign of inflammation that raises the body temperature and stimulates the immune response
Fimbriae
filamentous appendages found by the hundreds on some bacterial cells; they aid adherence to host cells
Flagella Staining
a staining protocol that uses a mordant to coat the flagella with stain until they are thick enough to be seen
Flocculant
visible aggregation that forms between a substance in suspension (e.g., lipid in water) and antibodies against the substance
Fluid Mosaic Model
refers to the ability of membrane components to move fluidly within the plane of the membrane, as well as the mosaic-like composition of the components
Fluorescence Microscope
a microscope that uses natural fluorochromes or fluorescent stains to increase contrast
Fluorescent
the ability of certain materials to absorb energy and then immediately release that energy in the form of light
Focal Infection
infection in which the pathogen causes infection in one location that then spreads to a secondary location
Free Ribosome
eukaryotic 80S ribosome found in the cytoplasm; synthesizes water-soluble proteins
Fungistatic
having the ability to inhibit fungal growth, generally by means of chemical or physical treatment
Gene Expression
production of proteins from the information contained in DNA through the processes of transcription and translation
Gene Gun
an apparatus that shoots gold or tungsten particles coated with recombinant DNA molecules at high speeds into plant protoplasts
Genomic Library
a repository of an organism’s entire genome maintained as cloned fragments in the genomes of strains of a host organism
Glycopeptides
class of antibacterials that inhibit cell wall synthesis by binding to peptidoglycan subunits and blocking their insertion into the cell wall backbone,
Gram Stain Procedure
a differential staining technique that distinguishes bacteria based upon their cell wall structure
Green Sulfur Bacteria,
anaerobic bacteria that use sulfide for oxidation and produce large amounts of green bacteriochlorophyll
Hapten
a molecule that is too small to be antigenic alone but becomes antigenic when conjugated to a larger protein molecule
Helicase
enzyme that unwinds DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous base pairs, using ATP
Helper T Cells
class of T cells that is the central orchestrator of the cellular and humoral defenses of adaptive immunity and the cellular defenses of innate immunity
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