Vocabulary and glossary of Pharmacy

Gel

Colloidal system with a finite, usually rather small yield stress.

Use of products containing genetic material (e.g., pDNA, antisense DNA, siRNA) to treat a disease or condition, or to modify or manipulate the expression of genetic material or to alter the biological prop- erties of living cells.

Generic

Drug(s) or formulation(s) of drug(s) or dosage forms, which no longer have patent protection.

Granules

Powder particles, which have been aggregated to form larger irregular particles, usually of 0.5–2 mm diameter.

Granulation

Process in which powder particles are made to aggregate to larger particles called granules.

Hydrate

Crystalline form of a compound in which water molecules are part of the crystal structure.

Hydrophile–lipophile Balance System

Empirical scale (of 0–20) used to classify surfactants and emulsifying agents.

Hydrophilicity

Tendency of a molecule to be solvated by water.

Hydrophobicity

Property of being water-repellent; tending not to absorb water.

Hygroscopicity

Tendency of a substance to absorb water from the atmosphere.

Immediate-release Tablet

Dosage form that releases the drug immediately.

Implantation

Insertion or grafting of a biological, living, inert, or radioactive material into the body.

Implants

Small sterile usually polymeric matrices, pellets, or particles for insertion or implanting into the body by surgical means or by injection to help achieve sustained release.

Inactivation Factor (if)

Number that expresses the reduction in the numbers of a microorganism, brought about by a sterilization process.

Inhalation Therapy

Administration of drugs directly to the respiratory tract, mostly by aerosols.

Injection

Delivery of a generally sterile liquid medication into the body, or a vessel, tissue, or organ via syringe and needle.

Inverted Micelle

Reversible formation of association colloids from surfactants in nonpolar solvents leads to aggregates termed inverted (or inverse, reverse, or reversed) micelles.

Liniments

Liquid intended for massaging into the skin.

Liposome

Artificial spherical lipid bilayer droplet formed mainly from phospholipids having a core of water phase, small enough to form a relatively stable dispersion in aqueous media and with potential use in drug delivery.

Loading Dose

Initial, typically larger than the maintenance dose of a drug given to a patient at the start of pharmaco- therapy.

Lotion

Solution, emulsion, or suspension to be applied to the skin.

Lozenge

Tablet, which does not contain a disintegrant and which is sucked to dissolve in the mouth to produce either a local (e.g., antiseptic) or systemic (e.g., vitamins) effect.

Lubricant

Used as processing aid in tablet and capsule manufacturing, to facilitate the movement of the formulation into the dye and punch and to reduce the energy of compression.

Lyophilic

Denotes a dispersed phase having a pronounced affinity for the dispersion medium.

Lyophobic

Denotes a dispersed phase having but slight affinity for the dispersion medium.

Matrix Formulation

Specific case of drug embedding in insoluble excipients (typically in a polymer) in order to achieve ex- tended release.

Maximum Additive Concentration

Maximum concentration of a drug, which will form a clear solution with a given concentration of surfactant.

Maximum Safe Concentration

Concentration of a drug in the plasma, above which side effects are likely to occur in a patient.

Micelle

Aggregates of colloidal dimensions (i.e., association of colloids) formed reversibly from amphiphile molecules.

Micellization

Formation of micelles.

Microemulsions

Emulsions in which the dispersed droplets are in the micron-size range.

Microencapsulation

Formation of microparticles encapsulating a drug.

Microfiltration

Pressure-driven, membrane-based separation process in which particles and dissolved macromolecules larger than 0.1 micrometer are rejected.

Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (mic)

Lowest concentration of an antibacterial drug necessary to inhibit the growth of a microorganism.

Modified Release

Release of a drug from a dosage form that it is not immediate (e.g., sustained release, retarded release, delayed-action preparations, controlled release, extended release, etc.).

Multicompartment Formulation

Dosage form (capsule, tablet) comprising several elements (e.g., microspheres or coated pellets) difering in the rate of drug release.

Multilayer Tablet

Consists of several different layers that are compressed on top of each other, to form a single tablet composed of two or more layers.

Nanoencapsulation

Formation of nanoparticles encapsulating a drug.

Nanoparticles

Microscopic particle whose size is measured in nanometers, often restricted to so-called nanosized particles also called ultrafine particles.

Nebulizer

Device that disperses liquids to aerosols for therapeutic use by inhalation through a mask.

Ointment

Greasy, semi-solid preparation for external application, often anhydrous, containing dissolved or dis- persed medicaments.

One-compartment Model

Kinetic model, where the whole body is thought of as a single compartment in which a substance is dis- tributed rapidly, achieving an equilibrium between blood and tissue immediately.

Onset Of Drug Action

Time required to achieve the minimum effective plasma concentration following administration of the dosage form.

Paste

Ointment containing >0 % of powder, dispersed in a fatty base.

Pellet

Very small tablet or pill

Pelletization

Process of agglomeration that converts fine powders or granules of bulk drugs and excipients into small, free-flowing, spherical, or semi-spherical units, referred to as pellets.

Pharmaceutics

Science of preparation of drugs, dosage forms, and drug delivery systems taking into account the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug as well as its physical and chemical properties.

Polymorph

Solid material that exists at least in two different molecular arrangements, i.e., distinctly different crystal species.

Polymorphic Transition

Transition of a solid crystalline phase to another phase having the same chemical composition but a different crystal structure.

Polymorphism

Existence of two or more different crystal structures for the same compound.

Powder Grades

Defined for powders used pharmaceutically, according to particle sizes.

Powder(s)

Dry solid material consisting of many, usually free flowing, fine particles. Conventionally, the title “powder” should be restricted to powder mixes for internal use and alternative terms are used for other powdered formulations presented in this way, e.g., dusting powders, which are for external use.

Preformulation

Exploratory activity that begins early in pharmaceutics, involving studies designed to determine the compatibility of excipients with the active substance for a biopharmaceutical; physicochemical and bioanalytical investigation in support of promising experimental formulations.

Prodrug

Chemically modified form of a pharmacologically active compound that has to undergo biochemical or chemical transformation before exhibiting its pharmacological effect.

Pseudopolymorph

Different crystalline form(s) of a solvated compound that differ in the identity and/or the stoichiometry of the solvating molecule.

Relative Bioavailability

Measure of the fraction of a given drug that is absorbed intact into the systemic circulation from a dosage form, relative to a recognized, clinically proven, standard dosage form of that drug.

Repeat Action Dosage Form

Tablet or capsule distinguished from a sustained-release dosage form, by the fact that it releases the me- dicinal agent, or part of it, at any time other than promptly after administration as opposed to a slow, controlled manner.

Sieving

Process that differentiates or separates solid particles according to their size using a meshed or perforated device.

Slugging

Method by which powder particles are compressed into a large tablet, called a slug, which is subse- quently dry-screened and compressed into a tablet.

Sol

Fluid colloidal dispersion of a solid in a liquid.

Sol-gel Transition

Transition of a suspension of solid, usually colloid, particles in a liquid (sol) to an apparent solid, jelly- like material (gel).

Solubilizing Agents

Additives making a substance soluble or more soluble, especially in water.

Solvate

Crystalline form of a compound in which one or more solvent molecules are part of the crystal struc- ture.

Spheronization

Process of making dense, spherical pellets by means of special spheronizing or pelletizing equipment.

Stent

Scaffold placed into narrowed, diseased vessels (mainly coronary arteries) or a device implanted in a vessel used to help keep it open.

Sterility

Condition of being aseptic, or statistically free from living microorganisms and their spores.

Sublingual Tablets

Usually small, flat, and soft tablets, which are designed to be placed under the tongue to allow direct absorption of the active ingredient through the mucosa for systemic effect.

Suppositories

Dosage form, semi-solid, used for the administration of drugs via the rectal route, for systemic or local effect. When application is via other routes (e.g., the vaginal route), suppositories are termed differ- ently, inserts, pessaries, etc.

Surfactant (surface-active Agent)

Substance that alters the conditions prevailing at an interface, causing, for example, a marked decrease in the surface tension of water or nonaqueous solvents.

Syrup

Liquid preparation of high sugar concentration with or without medicinal and additional flavouring substances.

Systemic

Effect, relating to the entire organism as distinguished from any of its individual parts.

Tablet

Solid dosage form compressed into a specific shape containing medicinal substances with or without suitable diluents.

Tablet Coating

Solid layers based typically on cellulose derivatives and may include plasticizers and pigments.

Therapeutic Index

Ratio between toxic and therapeutic doses (the higher the ratio, the greater the safety of the therapeutic dose).

Transplantation

The removal of tissue from one part of the body or from one individual and its implantation or insertion in another.

Acid-fast Stain

A stain that differentiates cells that have waxy mycolic acids in their gram-positive cell walls

Acidic Dye

a chromophore with a negative charge that attaches to positively charged structures

Acne

A skin disease in which hair follicles or pores become clogged, leading to the formation of comedones and infected lesions

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (aids)

Disease caused by HIV, characterized by opportunistic infections and rare cancers.

Actin

A protein that polymerizes to form microfilaments.

Activation Energy

Energy needed to form or break chemical bonds and convert a reactant or reactants to a product or products.

Activator

Protein that increases the transcription of a gene in response to an external stimulus.

Active Carrier

An infected individual who can transmit the pathogen to others regardless of whether symptoms are currently present.

Active Immunity

Stimulation of one’s own adaptive immune responses.

Acute Glomerulonephritis

Inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidney, probably resulting from deposition of immune complexes and an autoimmune response caused by self-antigen mimicry by a pathogen

Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis

A severe form of gingivitis, also called trench mouth.

Acute Otitis Media

Inflammatory disease of the middle ear resulting from a microbial infection.

Addison Disease

autoimmune disease affecting adrenal gland function

Adenine

purine nitrogenous base found in nucleotides

Adenosine Diphosphate (adp)

nucleotide derivative and relative of ATP containing only one high-energy phosphate bond

Adenosine Monophosphate (amp)

adenine molecule bonded to a ribose molecule and to a single phosphate group, having no high-energy phosphate bonds

Adenosine Triphosphate (atp)

energy currency of the cell; a nucleotide derivative that safely stores chemical energy in its two high-energy phosphate bonds

Adhesion

the capability of microbes to attach to host cells

Aerobic Respiration

use of an oxygen molecule as the final electron acceptor of the electron transport system

Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

a method for separating populations of DNA molecules of varying sizes by differential migration rates caused by a voltage gradient through a horizontal gel matrix

Agglutination

binding of different pathogen cells by Fab regions of the same antibody to aggregate and enhance elimination from body

Agranulocytes

leukocytes that lack granules in the cytoplasm

Algae

any of various unicellular and multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms; distinguished from plants by their lack of vascular tissues and organs

Allergen

antigen capable of inducing type I hypersensitivity reaction

Allergy

hypersensitivity response to an allergen

Allosteric Activator

molecule that binds to an enzyme’s allosteric site, increasing the affinity of the enzyme’s active site for the substrate(s)

Amino Acid

a molecule consisting of a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, and an amine group bonded to the same carbon. The group bonded to the carbon varies and is represented by an R in the structural formula

Aminoacyl-trna Synthetase

enzyme that binds to a tRNA molecule and catalyzes the addition of the correct amino acid to the tRNA

Aminoglycosides

protein synthesis inhibitors that bind to the 30S subunit and interfere with the ribosome’s proofreading ability, leading to the generation of faulty proteins that insert into and disrupt the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane

Amoebiasis

intestinal infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica

Amoebic Dysentery

severe form of intestinal infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica, characterized by severe diarrhea with blood and mucus

Amphipathic

a molecule containing both polar and nonpolar parts

Anabolism

chemical reactions that convert simpler molecules into more complex ones

Anaerobe Chamber

closed compartment used to handle and grow obligate anaerobic cultures

Anaerobic Respiration

use of a non-oxygen inorganic molecule, like CO2, nitrate, nitrite, oxidized iron, or sulfate, as the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport system

Annealing

formation of hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide base pairs of two single-stranded complementary nucleic acid sequences

Antibody

Y-shaped glycoprotein molecule produced by B cells that binds to specific epitopes on an antigen

Anticodon

three-nucleotide sequence of a mature tRNA that interacts with an mRNA codon through complementary base pairing

Antigenic Drift

form of slight antigenic variation that occurs because of point mutations in the genes that encode surface proteins

Antigenic Shift

form of major antigenic variation that occurs because of gene reassortment

Antigenic Variation

changing of surface antigens (carbohydrates or proteins) such that they are no longer recognized by the host’s immune system

Antimetabolites

compounds that are competitive inhibitors for bacterial metabolic enzymes

Antimicrobial Drugs

chemical compounds, including naturally produced drugs, semisynthetic derivatives, and synthetic compounds, that target specific microbial structures and enzymes, killing specific microbes or inhibiting their growth

Antimicrobial Peptides (amps)

class of nonspecific, cell-derived chemical mediators with broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties

Antisense Rna

small noncoding RNA molecules that inhibit gene expression by binding to mRNA transcripts via complementary base pairing

Antisense Strand

transcription template strand of DNA; the strand that is transcribed for gene expression

Antiseptic

antimicrobial chemical that can be used safely on living tissue

Antiserum

serum obtained from an animal containing antibodies against a particular antigen that was artificially introduced to the animal

Apoenzyme

enzyme without its cofactor or coenzyme

Apoptosis

programmed and organized cell death without lysis of the cell

Arbovirus

any of a variety of viruses that are transmitted by arthropod vectors

Ascocarps

cup-shaped fruiting bodies of an ascomycete fungus

B Lymphocyte

antibody-producing cells of humoral immunity; B cell

Bacillus (bacilli)

rod-shaped prokaryotic cell

Bacteremia

condition marked by the presence of bacteria in the blood

Bacteria

any of various unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms typically (but not always) having cell wells that contain peptidoglycan

Bacterial Lawn

layer of confluent bacterial growth on an agar plate

Bacterial Meningitis

bacterial infection that results in an inflammation of the meninges

Bacterial Vaginosis

a condition caused by an overgrowth of bacteria in the vagina that may or may not cause symptoms

Bactericidal

irreversible inhibition of a microbe’s ability to divide

Bactericide

chemical or physical treatment that kills bacteria

Bacteriochlorophylls

green, purple, or blue pigments of bacteria; they are similar to chlorophyll of plants

Bacteriology

the study of bacteria

Bacteriostatic

having the ability to inhibit bacterial growth, generally by means of chemical or physical treatment; reversible inhibition of a microbe’s ability to divide

Barophilea

organism that grows under high atmospheric pressure

Basal Body

component of eukaryotic flagellum or cilium composed of nine microtubule triplets and attaches the flagellum or cilium to the cell

Bioremediation

use of microbes to remove xenobiotics or environmental pollutants from a contaminated site

Biosynthesis

replication of viral genome and other protein components

Blastomycosis

fungal disease associated with infections by Blastomyces dermatitidis; can cause disfiguring scarring of the hands and other extremities

Blue-white Screening

a technique commonly used for identifying transformed bacterial cells containing recombinant plasmids using lacZ-encoding plasmid vectors

Blunt Ends

ends of DNA molecules lacking single-stranded complementary overhangs that are produced when some restriction enzymes cut DNA

Broad-spectrum Antimicrobial

drug that targets many different types of microbes

Budding Yeasts

yeasts that divide by budding off of daughter cells

Burst Size

the number of virions released from a host cell when it is lysed because of a viral infection

Candle Jar

container with a tight-fitting lid in which a burning candle consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, thereby creating an environment suitable for capnophiles

Capsid

protein coat surrounding the genome of the virus

Capsomere

individual protein subunits that make up the capsid

Capsule Staining

a negative staining technique that stains around a bacterial capsule while leaving the capsule clear

Coenzyme

organic molecule required for proper enzyme function that is not consumed and is reusable

Cofactor

inorganic ion that helps stabilize enzyme conformation and function

Communicable

able to be transmitted directly or indirectly from one person to another

Competitive Inhibitor

molecule that binds to an enzyme’s active site, preventing substrate binding

Complementary Base Pairs

base pairing due to hydrogen bonding that occurs between a specific purine and a specific pyrimidine; A bonds with T (in DNA), and C bonds with G

Complementary Dna

a DNA molecule complementary to mRNA that is made through the activity of reverse transcriptase

Complex Virus

virus shape that often includes intricate characteristics not seen in the other categories of capsid

Conidia

asexual fungal spores not enclosed in a sac; produced in a chain at the end of specialized hyphae called conidiophores

Conjunctivitis

inflammation of the conjunctiva, the mucous membrane covering the eye and inside of the eyelid

Culture Medium

combination of compounds in solution that supports growth

Cytoplasm

the gel-like material composed of water and dissolved or suspended chemicals contained within the plasma membrane of a cell

Cytoskeleton

a network of filaments or tubules in the eukaryotic cell that provides shape and structural support for cells; aids movement of materials throughout the cell

Cytotoxic T Cells

effector cells of cellular immunity that target and eliminate cells infected with intracellular pathogens through induction of apoptosis

Cytotoxicity

harmful effects to host cell

Death Phase (decline Phase)

phase of the growth curve at which the number of dying cells exceeds the number of new cells formed

Decolorizing Agent

a substance that removes a stain, usually from some parts of the specimen

Definitive Host

the preferred host organism for a parasite, in which the parasite reaches maturity and may reproduce sexually

Degeneracy

redundancy in the genetic code because a given amino acid is encoded by more than one nucleotide triplet codon

Degranulation

release of the contents of mast cell granules in response to the cross-linking of IgE molecules on the cell surface with allergen molecules

Dehydration Synthesis

chemical reaction in which monomer molecules bind end to end in a process that results in the formation of water molecules as a byproduct

Deletion

type of mutation involving the removal of one or more bases from a DNA sequence

Denatured Protein

protein that has lost its secondary and tertiary structures (and quaternary structure, if applicable) without the loss of its primary structure

Dendrites

branched extensions of the soma of a neuron that interact with other cells

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (dna)

double-stranded nucleic acid composed of deoxyribonucleotides that serves as the genetic material of the cell

Desiccation

method of microbial control involving the removal of water from cells through drying or dehydration

Differential Staining

staining that uses multiple dyes to differentiate between structures or organisms

Diffraction

the changing of direction (bending or spreading) that occurs when a light wave interacts with an opening or barrier

Dikaryotic

having two separate nuclei within one cell

Dimorphic Fungus

a fungus that can take the form of a yeast or a mold, depending on environmental conditions

Dioecious

refers to sexually reproducing organisms in which individuals have either male or female reproductive organs (not both)

Direct Elisa

enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay in which the antigens are immobilized in the well of a microtiter plate; only a single antibody is used in the test

Disease

any condition in which the normal structure or function of the body is damaged or impaired

Disinfectant

antimicrobial chemical applied to a fomite during disinfection that may be toxic to tissues

Disinfection

protocol that removes potential pathogens from a formite

Dispersion

the separation of light of different frequencies due to different degrees of refraction

Dna Ligase

enzyme that catalyzes the formation of a covalent phosphodiester linkage between the 3’-OH end of one DNA fragment and the 5’ phosphate end of another DNA fragment

Dna Probe

a single-stranded DNA fragment that is complementary to part of the gene (DNA or RNA) of interest

Dry-heat Sterilization

protocol that involves the direct application of high heat

Dysentery

intestinal inflammation that causes diarrhea with blood and mucus

Dysuria

urination accompanied by burning, discomfort, or pain

Ectoplasm

outer, more gelatinous layer of cytoplasm under a protist cell membrane

Edema

swelling due to accumulation of fluid and protein in tissue as a result of increased permeability of capillary walls during an inflammatory response;

F Plasmid (fertility)

bacterial plasmid in E. coli containing genes encoding the ability to conjugate, including genes encoding the formation of the conjugation pilus

F+ (donor) Cell

E. coli cell containing the F plasmid, capable of forming a conjugation pilus

Facultative Anaerobe

organism that grows better in the presence of oxygen but can proliferate in its absence

Fermentation

process that uses an organic molecule as a final electron acceptor to regenerate NAD+ from NADH such that glycolysis can continue

Fever

system-wide sign of inflammation that raises the body temperature and stimulates the immune response

Fimbriae

filamentous appendages found by the hundreds on some bacterial cells; they aid adherence to host cells

Flagella Staining

a staining protocol that uses a mordant to coat the flagella with stain until they are thick enough to be seen

Flocculant

visible aggregation that forms between a substance in suspension (e.g., lipid in water) and antibodies against the substance

Fluid Mosaic Model

refers to the ability of membrane components to move fluidly within the plane of the membrane, as well as the mosaic-like composition of the components

Fluorescence Microscope

a microscope that uses natural fluorochromes or fluorescent stains to increase contrast

Fluorescent

the ability of certain materials to absorb energy and then immediately release that energy in the form of light

Focal Infection

infection in which the pathogen causes infection in one location that then spreads to a secondary location

Free Ribosome

eukaryotic 80S ribosome found in the cytoplasm; synthesizes water-soluble proteins

Fungistatic

having the ability to inhibit fungal growth, generally by means of chemical or physical treatment

Gene Expression

production of proteins from the information contained in DNA through the processes of transcription and translation

Gene Gun

an apparatus that shoots gold or tungsten particles coated with recombinant DNA molecules at high speeds into plant protoplasts

Genetic Code

correspondence between mRNA nucleotide codons and the translated amino acids

Genomic Library

a repository of an organism’s entire genome maintained as cloned fragments in the genomes of strains of a host organism

Genotype

full collection of genes that a cell contains within its genome

Glycopeptides

class of antibacterials that inhibit cell wall synthesis by binding to peptidoglycan subunits and blocking their insertion into the cell wall backbone,

Gram Stain Procedure

a differential staining technique that distinguishes bacteria based upon their cell wall structure

Green Sulfur Bacteria,

anaerobic bacteria that use sulfide for oxidation and produce large amounts of green bacteriochlorophyll

Hapten

a molecule that is too small to be antigenic alone but becomes antigenic when conjugated to a larger protein molecule

Helicase

enzyme that unwinds DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous base pairs, using ATP

Helper T Cells

class of T cells that is the central orchestrator of the cellular and humoral defenses of adaptive immunity and the cellular defenses of innate immunity

Vocabullary of Pharmacy