The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years.
Some of the major dynasties and rulers this period witnessed are listed below:
i. Slave (Ghulam) or Mamluk Dynasty
ii. Khilji Dynasty
iii. Tughluq dynasty
iv. Sayyid Dynasty
v. Lodi dynasty
Qutb al-Din Aibak, a former Turkic Mamluk slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the founder of the Delhi Sultanate, and his Mamluk dynasty conquered large areas of northern India.
Afterward, the victories of the Khilji dynasty expanded in the south. The sultanate reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughluq dynasty, occupying most of the Indian subcontinent. This was followed by decline due to Hindu reconquests, states such as the Vijayanagara Empire and Mewar asserting independence, and new Muslim sultanates such as the Bengal Sultanate breaking off.
In 1526, the Sultanate was conquered and succeeded by the Mughal Empire.
The sultanate is noted for its integration of the Indian subcontinent into a global cosmopolitan culture, being one of the few powers to repel attacks by the Mongols and for enthroning one of the few female rulers in Islamic history, Razia Sultana, who reigned from 1236 to 1240.
Notes
1. Delhi Sultanate - The Slave Dynasty (Mamluks)
Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970Slave Dynasty
Mamluks were the earliest rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. They are also known as the Slave Kings because many of them were either slaves or were the sons of slaves and became Sultans.
The first of the slave kings was Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was the general of Muhammad Ghori. After the death of Ghori, Qutb-ud-din stayed in India and established his kingdom.
After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by, Shams ud-Din Iltutmish.
I. Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish
When Iltutmish succeeded Qutb ud-din as Sultan, a separate kingdom was established in the northern India, namely Delhi Sultanate.
His rule was challenged a number of times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars. Iltutmish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranthambore and Siwalik from the Hindu rulers. He also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori.
Iltutmish rule lasted till 1236. Following his death, the Delhi Sultanate saw a succession of weak rulers, disputing Muslim nobility, assassinations, and short-lived tenures.
II. Rukn-ud-din Feroze (April 1236 – November 1236)
He was the fourth sultan of Mamluk Dynasty.
He ruled for only seven months and his mother, Shah Turkan, for all practical purposes was running the government
He abandoned himself to the pursuit of personal pleasure and debauchery, to the considerable outrage of the citizenry
On 9 November 1236, both Rukn-ud-din Feroze and his mother Shah Turkan were assassinated by the Chihalgani.
III. Razia Sultan (1236 – 1240)
Razia Sultana was the fifth Sultan.
She is notable for being the first female Muslim ruler of the Indian Subcontinent.
A daughter of Mamluk Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish, Razia administered Delhi during 1231-1232 when her father was busy in the Gwalior campaign
Impressed by her performance during this period, Iltutmish nominated Razia as his heir apparent after returning to Delhi.
Iltutmish was succeeded by Razia's half-brother Ruknuddin Feroze, whose mother Shah Turkan planned to execute her. During a rebellion against Ruknuddin, Razia instigated the general public against Shah Turkan, and ascended the throne after Ruknuddin was deposed in 1236.
She was married to Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, the governor of Bathinda.
She was reportedly killed by her brother’s forces.
Her half brother Muizuddin Bahram Shah succeeded her.
IV. Muiz-ud-din Bahram (1240 - 1242)
He was the sixth sultan.
It was during this period of unrest that the Mongols invaded the Punjab and sacked Lahore. Muiz-ud-din Bahram was too weak to take any action against them, and the Chihalgani besieged him in the White Fort of Delhi and put him to death in 1242.
V. Ala-ud-din Masud(1242 – 1246)
He was the seventh sultan of the dynasty.
He was effectively a puppet for the Chihalgani and did not actually have much power or influence in the government. Instead, he became infamous for his fondness of entertainment and wine.
By 1246, the chiefs had become upset with Ala-ud-din Masud's increasing hunger for more power and replaced him with his cousin Nasiruddin Mahmud, who was another grandson of Iltutmish.
VI. Nasiruddin Mahmud(1246 – 1266)
He was the eighth sultan of the dynasty.
As a ruler, Mahmud was known to be very religious, spending most of his time in prayer and was renowned for aiding the poor and the distressed.
It was his Deputy Sultan, Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, who primarily dealt with state affairs.
VII. Ghiyas ud-Din Balban(1266 – 1287)
He was the wazir of the last Shamsi sultan, Nasiruddin Mahmud.
He was the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi.
Despite having only few military achievements, he was the most powerful ruler of the sultanate between Shamsuddin Iltutmish and Alauddin Khilji.
He tried to establish peace and order in India and built many outposts with garrisons of soldiers in areas where there had been disorder. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown, so he established an efficient espionage system.
VIII. Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Qaiqabad (1287 – 1290)
He was the tenth and final Sultan of the Slave Dynasty.
Being still young at the time, he ignored all state affairs. After four years, he suffered a paralytic stroke and was later murdered in 1290 by a Khalji chief.
His three-year-old son Shamsuddin Kayumars nominally succeeded him, but the Slave dynasty had ended with the rise of the Khiljis.
2. Khilji Dynasty Rulers, Timeline and decline
Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970The Khalji or Khilji dynasty was a Muslim dynasty that ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent between 1290 and 1320.
It was founded by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji and became the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate of India.
The dynasty is known for their faithlessness and ferocity, conquests into the Hindu south, and for successfully fending off the repeated Mongol invasions of India.
The Khaljis were of Turko-Afghan origin: a Turkic people that had settled in Afghanistan before moving to Delhi.
I. Jalal-ud-din Khalji(1290-1296)
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (died 19 July 1296) was the founder and first Sultan of the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320.
Originally named Firuz, Jalal-ud-din started his career as an officer of the Mamluk dynasty and rose to an important position under Sultan Muizuddin Qaiqabad.
After Qaiqabad was paralyzed, a group of nobles appointed his infant son Shamsuddin Kayumars as the new Sultan and tried to kill Jalal-ud-din. Instead, Jalal-ud-din had them killed, and became the regent. A few months later, he deposed Kayumars and became the new Sultan.
As a Sultan, he repulsed a Mongol invasion and allowed many Mongols to settle in India after their conversion to Islam.
He captured Mandawar and Jhain from the Chahamana king Hammira, although he was unable to capture the Chahamana capital Ranthambore.
He appointed Ala-ud-din Khilji as the Governor of Kara. Alauddin was his son-in-law and also nephew.
In 1292 A.D. Jalal-ud-din defeated the Mongols who had come up to Sunam.
End of Jalal-ud-din
Jalal-ud-din was treacherously murdered by Ala-ud-din Khilji, his son-in-law.
Jalal-ud-din’s policy of peace was not liked by many.
II. Alauddin Khalji(1296–1316)
Ala ud-Dīn Khalji born as Ali Gurshasp was the most powerful emperor of the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the Afghanistan & Indian subcontinent.
Alauddin obtained the governorship of Kara in 1291 after suppressing a revolt against Jalaluddin, and the governorship of Awadh in 1296 after a profitable raid on Bhilsa.
In 1296, Alauddin raided Devagiri and acquired loot to stage a successful revolt against Jalaluddin. After killing Jalaluddin, he consolidated his power in Delhi and subjugated Jalaluddin's sons in Multan.
He was the first Sultan who attacked South India.
He sent his confidante and general Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south.
Prataparuda-II of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava king of Devagiri, and Vira Ballala-III the Hoysala king was defeated.
He constructed a mosque in Rameswaram.
The kingdoms of the south acknowledged the power of Alauddin Khilji and paid his monetary tributes.
Alauddin successfully resisted the Mongol invasion more than 12 times.
Domestic policies of Alauddin Khilji
Alauddin followed the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
He introduced four ordinances to prevent repeated revolts.
He impounded pious grants and free grants of lands
He banned social parties and wine.
He introduced a permanent standing army.
He started the system of branding of horses and the descriptive roster of individual soldiers to inhibit corruption.
He fixed the prices of necessary commodities which were below the normal market rates.
He strictly prohibited black marketing.
Revenue was collected in cash and not in kind.
He followed discriminatory policies towards the Hindus and imposed the Jizya, a grazing tax, and a house tax on the Hindu community.
Marketing System
Officers called Diwan-i-riyasat were appointed in the offices called Shahana-i-mandi to standardize the market.
Merchants should have to register themselves in the office (Shahana-i-mandi) before selling their goods at fixed rates.
Alauddin-Khalji’s Estimate
He was the first to bring the standing army system.
He constructed Alai Darwaza, the Palace of a thousand pillars, and the Fort of Siri.
Shihabuddin Omar(1316)
He was the third Sultan of the Khalji Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate in India.
After the death of his father Alauddin Khalji in 1316, he ascended the throne as a minor, with the support of Ala-ud-din's slave-general Malik Kafur.
After the assassination of Kafur, his brother Qutb-ud-din Mubarak became the regent and subsequently dethroned him to become the Sultan.
Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah(1316–1320)
He was a ruler of the Delhi Sultanate of present-day India. A member of the Khalji dynasty, he was a son of Alauddin Khalji.
After Ala-ud-din's death, Mubarak Shah was imprisoned by Malik Kafur, who appointed his younger brother Shihabuddin Omar as a puppet monarch.
After Malik Kafur's murder, Mubarak Shah became the regent. Soon after, he blinded his brother and usurped the power. After ascending the throne, he resorted to populist measures, such as abolishing the heavy taxes and penalties imposed by his father and releasing thousands of prisoners.
He curbed a rebellion in Gujarat, recaptured Devagiri, and successfully besieged Warangal to extract a tribute.
He was murdered because of a conspiracy by his slave general Khusrau Khan, who succeeded him on the throne.
Khusrau Khan
He was the Sultan of Delhi for around two months in 1320.
He belonged to the Baradu Hindu military clan and was captured by the Delhi army during Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Malwa in 1305.
After being brought to Delhi as a slave, he converted to Islam and became a homosexual partner of Alauddin’s son Mubarak Shah.
After ascending the throne in 1316, Mubarak Shah gave him the title "Khusrau Khan", and greatly favored him.
Khusrau Khan led a successful campaign to reassert Delhi's control over Devagiri in 1317.
The next year, he led an army that besieged Warangal, forcing the Kakatiya ruler Prataparuda to resume tribute payments to Delhi.
In 1320, he led a group of Baradus and disgruntled nobles to assassinate Mubarak Shah and ascended the throne with the regnal name Nasiruddin. However, he was soon deposed by a group of rebels led by the noble Malik Tughluq, who succeeded him on the throne.
End of the Dynasty:
Eventually, in 1320 A.D. the Governor of Punjab Ghazi Malik led a group of nobles, conquered Delhi, and captured the throne.
Ghazi Malik assumed the name ‘Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq’ at Delhi and founded the Tughluq Dynasty, a dynasty of rulers.
3. Tughluq Dynasty (1320 Ce - 1413 Ce)
Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970The Tughluq dynasty also referred to as Tughluq or Tughluq dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Turko-Indian origin which ruled over the Delhi sultanate in medieval India.
Its reign started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq.
The dynasty ended in 1413.
The dynasty expanded its territorial reach through a military campaign led by Muhammad bin Tughluq, and reached its zenith between 1330 and 1335.
Important Rulers
1. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq
☞ In 1320, Ghazi Malik launched an attack with the use of an army of Khokhar tribesmen and killed Khusrau Khan to assume power
☞ After assuming power, Ghazi Malik renamed himself as Ghiyasuddin Tughluq - thus starting and naming the Tughluq dynasty
☞ He is also referred in scholarly works as Tughluq Shah. He was of mixed Turko-Indian origins; his mother was a Jatt noble and his father was likely descended from Indian Turkic slaves
☞ He brought Bengal, Utkala or Orissa, and Warangal under his control
☞ The Mongol leaders who invaded North India were seized and confined by him.
☞ He founded the city of Tughluqabad.
☞ His reign was cut short after five years when he died under mysterious circumstances in 1325.
2. Muhammad bin Tughluq
☞ He was the Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351.☞ He was the eldest son of Ghiyas -ud -Din -Tughluq, the founder of the Tughluq dynasty.
☞ He was interested in medicine and was skilled in several languages — Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Sanskrit.
☞ Ibn Battuta, the famous traveler and jurist from Morocco, was a guest at his court and wrote about his suzerainty in his book.
☞ In 1327 A.D. he captured Warangal.
☞ He introduced the copper currency system.
☞ he value of coins dropped; hence he had to withdraw the copper token currency.
☞ Mohammed-bin-Tughluq’s domestic policies were good but due to faulty implementation measures, they failed.
☞ The decline of the Delhi Sultanate is claimed due to his hasty decisions and defective policy implementation.
3. Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq
☞ He was a Turkic Muslim ruler of the Tughluq Dynasty, who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388
☞ His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title Sipahsalar.
☞ He succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughluq following the latter's death at Thatta in Sindh.
☞ He withdrew all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by Mohammed-bin-Tughluq.
☞ He constructed towns like Firozabad, Hissar, Jaunpur, and Fatehabad.
☞ He imposed Jizya tax on all non-Muslims.
☞ He was indiscriminately benevolent and lenient as a sultan.
☞ He captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute
☞ He converted Chauhan Rajputs from Hinduism to Islam in the 14th century. They are now known as Qaimkhanis in Rajasthan.
☞ A number of madrasas (Islamic religious schools) were opened to encourage the religious education of Muslims.
☞ He set up hospitals for the free treatment of the poor and encouraged physicians in the development of Unani medicine.
☞ He provided money for the marriage of girls belonging to poor families under the department of Diwan-i-khairat.
☞ Hindu religious works were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and Arabic. He had a large personal library of manuscripts in Persian, Arabic and other languages.
☞ Firoz also owned two of the pillars of the emperor Ashoka and one of them was placed on the roof of his palace.
☞ Futuhat-e-firozshahi is an autobiography of Firoz Tughluq.
☞ His eldest son, Fath Khan, died in 1376. He then abdicated in August 1387 and made his other son, Prince Muhammad, king.
☞ A slave rebellion forced him to confer the royal title to his grandson, Tughluq Khan.
☞ In September 1388, Firoz died, after which there was a civil war among his descendants. Because of the political instability, the governors of many provinces became independent kings and finally only a small area around Delhi remained in the hands of the Tughluq Sultans.
4. Sultan Abu Bakar Shah
☞ He was a Muslim Turkic ruler of the Tughluq dynasty.
☞ He ruled from 1389- 1390.
☞ He was the son of Zafar Khan and the grandson of Sultan Feroze Shah Tughluq.
☞ After Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II (who had succeeded Sultan Feroze Shah Tughluq) was murdered, Abu Bakr became ruler of the Tughluq Empire.
☞ However, his uncle, Muhammad Shah Ibn Firuz Shah Tughluq, also desired to be ruler, and struggled against Abu Bakr over the control of the throne. Abu Bakr was defeated in August 1390, and Muhammad Shah ibn Firuz Shah Tughluq succeeded him as king.
☞ After his defeat, Abu Bakr was imprisoned in the fort of Meerut and died soon after.
5. Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III
☞ Muhammad Shah was son of Sultan Feroze Shah Tughluq and was ruler of the Muslim Tughluq dynasty.
☞ When Sultan Abu Bakr Shah Tughluq became ruler of the Tughluq Empire. Muhammad Shah as his uncle was opposed to him, and struggled against Abu Bakr over the control of the throne.
☞ Eventually Abu Bakr was defeated, and Muhammad Shah succeeded him as king, reigning from 1390 to 1394.
6. Sultan Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah
☞ Also known as Humayun Khan, he was the son of Sultan Muhammad Shah Tughluq.
☞ He ascended the imperial throne in virtue of his being heir apparent, as Ala-ud-din Sikandar Shah on 1 February 1394 C.E. But after one month and sixteen days he died of natural causes.
7. Sultan Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq
☞ He was the son of Fath Khan, and during the reign of Mahmud II, he was brought forward from Mewat to the royal palace at Firozabad and put forward as a claimant to the throne.
☞ Parts of the Doab, Panipat, Sonepat, Rohtak and Jhajjar were under the control of Nasir ud-din Nusrat Shah while Sultan Mahmud only controlled the two forts (Old Delhi and Siri).
8. Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq
☞ Also known as Nasiruddin Mohammad Shah, he was the last sultan of the Tughluq dynasty to rule the Islamic Delhi Sultanate.
☞ Nasiruddin Mahmud was a son of sultan Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III.
☞ Upon his death, his older son Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah became sultan, but he soon died of illness on 8 March 1394, and his younger brother Nasiruddin Mahmud succeeded him.
☞ However, the succession was challenged by his relative Nusrat Shah (also known as Nasrat Khan), triggering a war of succession that lasted for three years until 1397.
☞ During this time, Nasiruddin Mahmud ruled from the city of Delhi, while Nusrat Shah ruled from Firozabad.
☞ During Nasiruddin Mahmud's reign in 1398, Amir Timur the Chagtai ruler invaded India. He carried away with him a large booty from Delhi and the surrounding area. Soon after the invasion, the Tughluq dynasty came to an end.
Successor
☞ After Timur withdrew, Nasiruddin Mahmud was under the effect of Amir Mallu Iqbal (ruler of the land between river Ganga and Jamuna River).☞ In 1408, Amir Mallu Iqbal attacked the Punjab but was defeated and killed by its ruler Sayyid Khizr Khan.
☞ After Mallu's death, Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah returned to Delhi and established his kingdom with help of Dauwlat Khan Lodi.
☞ Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah died in February 1413.
☞ Dauwlat Khan Lodi was raised as Sultan of Delhi by the Wazeers and Amirs of the last Tughluq Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah.
☞ He remained as autonomous King for almost a year.
☞ On 28 May 1414, Sayyid Khizr Khan surrounded the city, defeated Dauwlat Khan's army and established the Sayyid dynasty.
☞ In 1414, the power vacuum created by Timur's invasion was filled by the first Sayyid Sultan.
☞ The succeeding sultan of the Delhi Sultanate was Khizr Khan, the first of the Sayyid Dynasty.
4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1451 cE)
Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970 The Sayyid dynasty was the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, with four rulers ruling from 1414 ce to 1451 ce.
Founded by Khizr Khan, a former governor of Multan.
They succeeded the Tughlaq dynasty and ruled the sultanate until they were displaced by the Lodi dynasty.
Members of the dynasty derived their title, Sayyid, or the descendants of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, based on the claim that they belonged to his lineage through his daughter Fatima, and son-in-law and cousin Ali.
Sayyid dynasty Sultans (Rulers):
1. Khizr Khan(1414 – 1421 ce)
He was the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, the ruling dynasty of the Delhi sultanate, in northern India soon after the invasion of Timur and the fall of the Tughlaq dynasty.
Khan was Governor of Multan under the Tughlaq ruler, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, and was known to be an able administrator.
He did not swear any royal title due to fear of Amir Timur.
He brought parts of Surat, Dilapur, and Punjab under his control.
But he lost Bengal, Deccan, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Khandesh, and Malwa.
During his reign, coins were continued to be struck in the name of previous Tughlaq rulers.
After his death on 20 May 1421, he was succeeded by his son Mubarak Khan.
2. Mubarak Shah (1421 - 1434 ce)
was the second monarch of the Sayyid dynasty which ruled the Delhi Sultanate
He took the title of Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah.
He is the first Sultan ruler to appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi.
He constructed “Mubarakbad” City on the banks of the river Jamuna.
He was murdered in 1434 and succeeded by his nephew, Muhammad Shah.
3. Muhammad Shah(1434 – 1445 ce)
He was the third monarch of the Sayyid dynasty which ruled the Delhi Sultanate.
He succeeded his uncle, Mubarak Shah to the throne.
He defeated the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlul Lodi the Governor of Lahore.
He conferred Bahlul Lodi with the title Khan-i-Khanan for help in defeating the ruler of Malwa.
Both Muhammad Shah and his son, Alam Shah who succeeded him, were supplanted by the Lodi dynasty.
4. Alam Shah (1445 – 1451 CE)
He was the fourth and last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty which ruled the Delhi Sultanate.
Born Ala ud-Din, he succeeded his father, Muhammad Shah to the throne and took on the regnal name of Alam Shah.
Alam Shah abandoned his charge in 1448 and retired to Budaun.
Three years later, Bahlul Lodi, who had made two prior attempts at capturing Delhi, took control of the capital to mark the beginning of the Lodi dynasty.