1. Indus Valley Civilization / Harappan Civilization : Ancient India

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

Indus Valley Civilization / Harappan Civilization:

• The Harappan Civilization is dated between 2600 BC and 1900 BC.
• It was a Bronze Age Civilization in the northwestern regions of South Asia.
• Named after Harappa, the first site to be excavated, the entire civilization is known as the Harappan Civilization.
• Sir John Hubert Marshall was responsible for the large-scale excavations that revealed Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, the two largest cities of the previously unknown IVC (Indus Valley Civilization).
• The Civilization was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in Punjab region (present-day Pakistan) and then in 1922 at Mohenjo-Daro near the Indus river.
• There are 5 major urban sites (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi).
  
  

 Origin

• There were earlier and later cultures, known as Early Harappan and Later Harappan.
• Harappan Civilization is also called Mature Harappan to distinguish from other cultures.
• The period is characterized by seals, beads, weights, baked bricks and stone blades (also called Mature Harappan culture).
  
  

 Geography

• It was spread over Sind, Afghanistan, Jammu, Punjab, Gujarat, Balochistan, northern Rajasthan, and Kathiawar.
• It covered most of Pakistan along with the western states of India.
• The Kalibangan - Mohenjo-Daro represents the center of the Harappan civilization.
• The number of Harappan sites, of the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries are around 500 and those along the Indus and its tributaries are approximately 100 in number.

Town plan

• Usually towns were laid out in a parallelogrammic form.
• System town planning, drainage system, granary, dockyard, public bathing place, use of bricks, buildings, etc are some of the most impressive achievements.
• Social equality seems to be widely prevalent in the cities of Indus Valley.
• Existence of the first urban sanitation systems in the world.
• The concept of urban planning is also widely evident.

Science

• They knew how to make long lasting paints and dyes.
• They also had the knowledge of proto-dentistry and the touchstone technique of gold testing.
• The people evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin.
• First to develop a system of uniform weights and measures.
• They knew metal working and mining.
• They constructed well planned multi storey buildings.

Agriculture

• The major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley.
• The Harappan cultivated wheat, peas, sesame and mustard.
• Rice husk in Lothal and Rangpur which proves cultivation of rice as well.
• First people in the world to grow cotton.
• Sheep, oxen, goats, buffaloes, dogs were domesticated.

Religious beliefs

• Harappans worshipped the mother Goddess as the symbol of fertility.
• They also worship Lord Pashupati, which is a figure, seated in a yoga - like posture and is surrounded by animals.
• Certain trees seem to have been considered as sacred.
• They believed life after death, as their graves often contained belongings to the dead person.

Crafts

• Various sculptured, seals, pottery, gold, jewelry and figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite, etc have been excavated from the sites of the Harappan Civilization.
• Other crafts include shell works, special kinds of combs, ceramics, agate, glazes steatite bead making, etc.
• Evidence of toys and stringed musical instruments.
• The ‘Dancing Girl’ and the ‘Bearded Head’ from the Mohenjo-Daro are the two well-known pieces of art.

Trade and Transportation

• The main forms of transport include bullock carts and boats.
• Signs of maritime trade network between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations also.
• Tin and precious stones were imported from Iran and Afghanistan.

Decline

• The gradual decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is believed to have started around 1800 BC.
• By 1700 BC, most of the sites were abandoned.
• The decline of civilization is believed to be connected with climate change.
• The over utilization of resources and an increase in population contributed to the decline of Harappan Civilization.

Some important IVC sites

• Harappa: the first site excavated, in 1921

Situated on banks of Ravi

Structures - 6 granaries in a row, images of mother goddess.

• Mohenjo-Daro: largest site of IVC

Excavated in 1922

Structure- Great Bath, Great Granary

• Lothal: Dock site

Rice husk found

• Kalibangan: Black Bangle factory
• Chanhudaro: city without a citadel, inkpot and lipstick
• Dholavira: in Gujarat, stone water reservoir
• Surkotada: Horse remains

2. The Vedic Era / Vedic Period : Ancient India

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

VEDIC AGE/ VEDIC PERIOD

• It existed between 500- 1500 BC.
• It gets its name from the Vedas.
• The Vedic society was patriarchal and patrilineal.
• Saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes.

Aryans

• The Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people.
• They originated from the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.(the Central Asian theory is given by Max Muller)
• Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (Hindukush Mountain).

The period of Vedic Civilization is divided into two parts:

• Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
• Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Early Vedic Period

• Rig Veda was composed.
• Battle of Ten Kings happened; Dasrajan war(King Sudas won)
• Aryans were organized into tribes rather than kingdoms.
• Concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff.
• Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance.
• Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaishyas.
• Standard unit of exchange was Cow.(coins were also there)
• Rishis were considered to be divine.
• Main deities were Indra, Agni and Soma.
• Yoga and Vedanta became the basic elements of religion.

Later Vedic Period

1. Emergence of agriculture as the principle economic activity.
2. Land and its protection started gaining significance and as a result several kingdoms arose.
3. Concept of Varna and the rules of marriage became more rigid than before.
4. The four fold division of society became clear, initially based on occupation which later became hereditary: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), Shudras (servers of upper three).
5. The institution of ‘gotra’ appeared for the first time.
6. Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati became supreme.
7. Vishnu came to be conceived as the protector of the people.
8. Rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas.
9. Rituals like Rajasuya (royal consecration), Vajapeya (chariot race) and Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) became widespread.
10. The tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system.

The Vedic Literature

• It was composed in Sanskrit.
• They were called Sruti and Smriti.
• The major literary and religious works of Vedic period are the four Vedas and the Upanishads.

There are four Vedas called

• The Rig Veda
• The Sama Veda
• The Yajur Veda
• The Atharva Veda

• Rig Veda
• Collection of hymns.(contains 1028 hymns)
• Oldest religious text in the world.
• Compiled in 10 mandalas.(second and seventh mandala were the oldest)
• Contains the famous Gayatri Mantra.

• Samveda
• Rhythmic compilation of hymns for Rig-Veda.
• It has only 75 fundamental hymns.
• Veda of melodies and chants.

• The Yajur Veda
• Book of sacrificial prayers.
• Rituals of Yajnas.
• Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices.
• Has been divided into Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda.

• Atharvaveda
• Mantras for magic spells.
• Populate ritualistic systems and superstitions.
• Has been divided into 20 ‘Kandas’.
• Provides freedom from the evil spirit.
• Oldest text on Indian medicine.

Upanishads

• Literary meaning is ‘Satra’ in which Guru Offers a band of knowledge to their disciplines.
• Also called Vedanta.
• They are the main source of Indian Philosophy, 108 in numbers.

The Brahmanas

• Explain the meaning of sacrifices and also the methods of performing them.
• Shahpath Brahmin or Yajur Veda is the largest among Brahmins.

The Aryanakas

• Provides the description of Moral Science and Philosophy.
• They form the concluding parts of the Brahmanas.
• Provides details of saints and hermits who lived in jungles.
• Protest the system of Yajnas.

Epics

• Mahabharata
• It was written in Sanskrit by Ved Vyas.
• It describes a war between Kauravas and Pandavas of 950 BC in Kurukshetra.
• Divided into 18 parvas (books).

• Ramayana
• It was written by Rishi Valmiki in Sanskrit.
• It has 24000 shlokas.
• Ramcharitmanas is written by Tulsidas.

• Puranas
• They are 18 in number.
• It was written during Gupta Age in AD 4^th
• Matsya Purana is the oldest Purana.

The end of Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes.

3. The Mauryan Dynasty And Civilisation : Quick Facts

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

MAURYAN CIVILIZATION

• The Mauryan Empire started from Magadha was founded by Chandragupta Maurya between 322 and 185 BC.
• The Mauryan Dynasty built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia’s oldest and longest trade networks.
• ‘Pali’ and ‘Prakrit’ was the language of common masses during the Mauryan Empire.
• ‘Takshashila’ was the famous education center of the Mauryan period.
• Patliputra, modern-day Patna was the capital city of the Mauryan Empire.
• The Empire was divided into provinces that were under princes.

Mauryan Administration

• The king was assisted by his Mantri Parishad.
• The administration is divided into four units
  • The chakra or the province.
  • The ahar or the district.
  • The sangrahana or a group of villages.
  • The gram or village.
• The municipal administration headed by a ‘Nagaraka’ was also found in Arthashastra.

Mauryan Art

• Royal Art- the royal palaces, pillars, caves, stupas, etc.
• Popular Art- figure sculptures, Terracotta objects, etc
• The Mauryas introduced Stone Masonry on a large scale.

Chandragupta Maurya

• Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of Chanakya and overthrew the Nanda Empire in 322 BC.
• Mudrarakshasa written by Vishakadatta beautifully summarizes the rise of Chandragupta Maurya.
• He earned the title of ‘Liberator’.
• He used marriage alliances, diplomacy, trickery and war to extend his kingdom.
• He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Megasthenes, who wrote the ‘Indica’.
• Chandragupta abdicated in favor of his son, Bindusara, and became a Jain monk.

Bindusara

• He extended the empire to the southern part of India.
• He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost the entire Indian peninsula.
• Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign.
• Unlike his father, he believed in the Ajivika sect.
• He was given the title of ‘Amitraghata’.
• He was known to the Greeks by the name of Amitrochates.

Ashoka

• He ascended the throne in 273 BC and ruled up to 232 BC.
• He was known as ‘Devanampriya Priyadarshi’.
• He fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC.
• After the battle of Kalinga, he became a Buddhist; shocked by the horrors of the war he replaced Bherighosha by Dhammaghosha.
• He implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity.
• Over forty years of peace, harmony, and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history.

Ashokan Inscriptions

• It carried royal orders in which he was able to speak directly to the people.
• The fourteen major Rock Edicts of Ashoka tell about the principles of Dharma.
• The Kalinga rock edict explains the principle of administration after the Kalinga war.
• The Major Rock Edict XII of Ashoka deals with the conquest of Kalinga.

Ashoka and Buddhism

• Ashoka was initiated by Buddhism by Upagupta or Nigrodha, a discipline of Buddha.
• For the propagation of Buddhism, Ashoka started the institution of Dharmamahamatras.
• He held the third Buddhist council at his capital Patliputra in 250 BC under the presidentship of Moggaliputta-Tissa.
• He sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka and Nepal. He is known as ‘Constantine of Buddhism’.

Decline

• Highly centralized Mauryan administration.
• Partition after the death of Ashoka disturbed the unity of the empire.
• A succession of weaker kings.
• The Mauryan king was killed by his general-in-chief, Pushyamitra, who founded the Shunga dynasty.

4. Gupta Empire : The Golden Age Of India

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

THE GUPTA EMPIRE

• It was an ancient Indian empire existing from the mid-to-late 3^rd century CE to 543 CE.

• This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by some of the historians.

• The Gupta Period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira and Vatsyayana.

• Many of the literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana were canonized in this period.

History

• After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the Kushans and the Satavahanas had held power. Gupta Empire replaced the Kushans in the North and gave political unity for more than a century.

• It was founded by Sri Gupta.

• Sri Gupta ruled from Patliputra (like the Mauryas).

• Sri Gupta was succeeded to the throne by his son Ghatotkacha.

• The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty’s Varna (social class).

Chandragupta I

• He was the son of Ghatotkacha.

• He was called Maharajadhiraja (king of kings).

• He married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, which helped him to extend his political powers and dominions.

• The original type of gold coins Dinars was issued.

Samudragupta

• He succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE and ruled until 375 CE.

• He was a military genius and continued the growth of the kingdom.

• He was very attentive to Rajdharma (duties of a king) and took special care to follow Chanakya’s Arthashastra closely.

• He was also a poet and musician.

• He donated large sums of money for various purposes including the promotion of education.

• An inscription, probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings, known as the Allahabad Pillar is most eloquent about his human qualities.

• He also believed in promoting goodwill among various religious communities.

• Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary for the permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya.

• He is called as Napoleon of India.

Ramagupta

• He became king because he was the eldest son of Samudragupta.

• He was overthrown because he was considered unfit to rule, and his younger brother Chandragupta II took over.

Chandragupta II

• He adopted the title Vikramaditya.

• He extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.

• His court was adorned by the Navratnas including Kalidasa.

• His exploits are glorified in Iron Pillar at Qutb Minar.

• Faxian, a Chinese Buddhist was one of the pilgrims who visited India during his reign.

Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II

Kumargupta

• He assumed the title Mahendraditya.

• He ruled until 455.

• He was the founder of Nalanda University which on 15 July, 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site.

Skandagupta

• He was the son and successor of Kumargupta I and is generally considered to be the last of the Gupta rulers.

• He assumed the title of Kramaditya and Vikramaditya.

• He defeated the Pushyamitra threat but then was faced with invading Kidarites from the northwest.

• He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire’s resources and contributed to its decline.

Life in the Gupta Age: 

System of Administration

• The kings maintained discipline and transparency in the bureaucratic process.

• Criminal law was mild, capital punishment was unheard of and judicial torture was not practiced.

• Samudragupta acquired a far great part of southern India than he cared to incorporate into his empire. Therefore, in quite a few cases, he returned the kingdom of the original kings and was satisfied only with collecting taxes from them.

• Grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to priests was also in practice.

Socio-economic conditions

• They preferred vegetarianism and shunned alcoholic beverages.

• Gold and silver coins were issued in great numbers.

• Silk, cotton, spices, medicine, pearl, priceless gemstone, metal and steel was exported by sea.

Religion

• The Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty.

• There were orthodox Hindus but did not force their beliefs as Buddhism and Jainism also were encouraged.

• Sanchi remained an important center for Buddhism.

Literature, Science and Education

• Ramayana, Mahabharata, Vayu Purana was re-written.

• Dignaga and Buddhaghosa were certain Buddhist literature written in this period.

• Kalidasa created such epics as Raghuvansham, Kumarsambhav, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, and Malavikagnimitram.

• Harisena composed Allahabad Prasasti.

• Vishakhadutta created Mudrarakshasa.

• Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta.

• Dhanvantari’s discoveries helped the Indian Ayurveda become more efficient.

• Varahamihira wrote Brihat-Samhita and also contributed to the fields of astronomy and astrology.

• People were encouraged to learn the nuances of Sanskrit literature, intellectual debate, music, and painting.

Art, Architecture, and Culture

• The finest examples of painting, sculpture, and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta, Ellora, Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura, and Sigiriya.

• The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive.

• The period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups.

• Stone studded golden stairways, iron pillars; jewelry and metal sculptures speak volumes about the skills of metalsmiths.

• Carved ivories, wood and lac-work, brocades and embroidered textile also thrived.

• Practicing vocal music dance and seven types of musical instruments including veena and flute were a norm rather than the exception.

• Dhamek Stupa of Sarnath, Ratnagiri Stupa of Orissa, Mirpur Khas in Sindh developed in this period.

The decline of the Empire

• Huns invasion during the reign of Skandagupta and his successors greatly weakened his empire.

• Competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa were also the factors which contributed to the decline.

• The rise of feudatories and Governors becoming independent led to the disintegration of the empire. Loss of western India had crippled them economically.

• A 2019 study has concluded that the cause of the Gupta Empire’s downfall was a devastating flood that happened around the middle of the 6^th century in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

5. BUDDHISM : The Religion Of Enlightenment, History And Important Concepts

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

What is Buddhism?

• It was started by Gautama Buddha who was also known as Sakyamuni and Tathagata.
• Lord Buddha was born in 563 BC in the sacred area of Lumbini located in the Terai plains of southern Nepal.
• His childhood name was Siddhartha.
• He was a Kshatriya prince of the Sakya/Shakya clan.
• His father’s name was King Suddhodana who was the ruler of the Sakya dynasty and his mother’s name was Maya who was the princess of the Koliya dynasty.
• Seven days after his birth, his mother died and he was brought up by his maternal aunt Mahapajapati Goutami.
• Siddhartha was married to Yasodhara at the age of 16.he also had a son named Rahula, but neither his son nor wife was able to tie him to the worldly life.
• After seeing the sorrow of the world Gautama Buddha decided to leave the pleasures of life and start living the life of a wanderer.
• At the age of 29, he left home in search of salvation. This event in Buddha’s life is known as ‘Mahabhinishkraman’.
• He reached Vaishali where he became the discipline of Alara Kalama but was not convinced by his teachings and he moved from there and became the discipline of Uddaka Ramaputta.
• After seven years of roaming around, he got enlightenment at the age of 35 while meditating on the bank of river Niranjana under a Peepal tree. This tree is called the Bodhi tree band the place is known as Bodh Gaya (Bihar).
• He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath. This event in Buddha’s life is known as ‘Dhammacakkappravattana’ or ‘Turning of Wheel of Law’.
• The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit.
• There are many stories about Buddha’s lives called Jatakas.
• He died at the age of 80 in 486 BC under a sal tree in Kushinagar. His death is known as Mahaparinirvana.

Eightfold paths of Buddhism

• Right speech
• Right livelihood
• Right efforts
• Right thoughts
• Right actions
• Right remembrance
• Right concentration
• Right mindfulness

According to Gautama Buddha, the person after following the Eight-Fold Paths leads to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth.

Buddhist Literature

• written in the Pali language.

• Vinaya Pitaka
• It deals with the laws of the Buddhist monasteries.
• It was recited by Upali in the first Buddhist Council in the year 483 BC.

• Sutta Pitaka
• It is the collection of Buddha’s sermons.
• It is divided into five parts.

• Abhidhamma Pitaka
• It deals with the life and the philosophy of the Buddha’s teachings.

• Milinda Panha
• It deals with the conversation with the Greek King Menander and the Buddhist Monk Nagasena.

• Tripitaka
• It is the sacred book of Buddhism.

• Dhammapada
• It is the collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form.
• It is widely read and best known as Buddhist scriptures.

Buddhist councils:

• First council

• It was held in 483 BC at Saptaparni caves near Rajgriha in Bihar.
• It was under the chairmanship of King Ajatashatru.
• Two Buddhist literatures were compiled; Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka by Upali.

• Second council
• It was held in the year 383 BC.
• It was under the chairmanship of King Kalashoka.

• Third council
• It was held in the year 250 BC at Patliputra under the chairmanship of Ashoka the Great.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka was added and Buddhist holy book Tripitaka was compiled.

• Fourth council
• It was held in year 78 AD at Kundalvan in Kashmir under the chairmanship of King Kanishka.
• During this council, Hinayana and Mahayana were divided.

Types of Buddhist:

Buddhism after the death of Buddha was divided into three parts:

• Hinayana
• They believe in the real teachings of Gautama Buddha in attaining Nirvana.
• They do not believe in idol worship.
• Pali language was used in the Hinayana text.

• Mahayana
• They believed that Nirvana is attained by the grace of Gautama Buddha and not by following his teachings.
• They believe in idol worship.
• Sanskrit was used in Mahayana text.

• Vajrayana
• They believe that Nirvana is attained by the help of magical tricks or black magic.

• Symbols associated with Gautama Buddha:
• Birth – Lotus or Bull
• Great renunciation – Horse
• First sermon – Wheel
• Nirvana – Bodhi tree/ Peepal tree
• Mahaparinirvana/ death – Stupa

• Famous monks at the time of Buddha:
• Ananda - constant companion of Buddha and the most devoted disciple.
• Anuruddha- master of right mindfulness.
• Mahakasyapa- president of the Buddhist council held at Rajagriha.
• Maudgalyayana- he had the greatest supernatural powers.
• Sariputra- possessed a profound insight into the Dhammapada.
• Upali- master of Vinaya.

• Famous Buddhist Scholars
• Ashvaghosha – contemporary of Kanishka, poet, dramatist, musician who wrote famous poem Buddhacarita.
• Nagarjuna – friend and contemporary of Satavahanas king who wrote the famous book Madhyamik Shastra.
• Buddhaghosa – Pali scholar who wrote Visuddhimagga.
• Dignaga – founder of Buddhist logic.

• Important Buddhist Gods and Goddess:
• Buddha Shakyamuni- the historical Buddha.
• Buddha Maitreya- the future Buddha.
• Avalokiteshvara- the Bodhisattva of wisdom and literature.
• Tara- a female Bodhisattva. She was considered a great protector that guards people against the eight major dangers in life.
• Padmasambhava- also called Guru Rinpoche is the historically tangible founder of Tibetan Buddhism.

6. Jainism : One Among Top Religions, History And Its Emergence

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

 Introduction to Jainism

• Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion.

• Followers of Jainism are called Jains.

• Jainism is a transtheistic religion, and Jains trace their spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four victorious saviors and teachers known as ‘Tirthankaras’.

• Their religious texts are called Agamas.

• It was founded by Adinath and Rishabha Dev, while the real founder was Mahavira Swami.

• The five Mahavrata (important principles) of Jainism are Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya (not to steal), Aparigraha (non-attachment) and Brahmacharya (celibacy).

• The first four were added by 23^rd Tirthankar ‘Parshvanatha’ while the fifth was added by Mahavir.

• Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• He was born in 497 BC at Kundagrama in Vaishali (Bihar).

• He was the 24^th and last Tirthankar of the Jain tradition.

• He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.

• He was a Kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of Vajji Sangha.

• The parents of Mahavira were Siddhartha and Trishala.

• He married a princess named Yashoda and had a daughter named Priyadarshana.

• He renounced the world at the age of thirty to become an ascetic and wandered for twelve years. He also practiced self-mortification for these years.

• In the 13^th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge under the Sal tree on the bank of river Rijupalika. This is known as Kevala Jnana.

• Thereafter he was called Mahavira, Jina, and Kevin.

• His followers were called the Jains and this religion came to be known as Jainism.

• He gave his first sermon at Pawa to 11 Brahmans.

• He died at the age of 72 at Pawa near Rajgriha.

• Teachings of Mahavira

• Jainism rejects the authority of Vedas and Vedic rituals.

• It discards the belief in God but instead worships their Tirthankara.

• The three principles of Jainism are also known as Triratnas which are; - Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct.

• Everyone had to strictly follow the doctrine of Ahimsa.

• Mahavira considered all objects, both animate and inanimate, to have souls and different degrees of consciousness.

• He even considered the practice of agriculture as sinful because it causes injury to the earth, worms and animals.

• The doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was considered the shortest path to salvation by going to extreme lengths for the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture.

Spread of Jainism

• Mahavira had organized the Sangha to spread his teachings, much like Buddhism.

• He admitted both genders in the Sangha.

• Sangha consisted of both monks and lay followers.

• The rapid rise of Jainism has been attributed to the dedicated work of the Sangha members who caused the spread of Jainism in Western India and Karnataka.

• Jainism was patronized by rulers like Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of South India like the Ganges, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.

Jain councils

• The first Jain Council was held at the Patliputra under the chairmanship of Sthulabhadra in 367 BC. It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas replacing the lost 14 Purves.

• The second Jain council was held at Vallabhi under the chairmanship of Devarddhigani in 526 AD.

Jainism literature

• They were written in Prakit language.

• Acharanga Sutra: tells about the meditation of Mahavira for 12 years.

• Kalpa Sutra: biographies of Jain Tirthankaras mainly Mahavira.

• Bhagwati Sutra: it contains thousands of questions and answers on various topics from four Anuyogas such as soul, entities, matter, ultimate particles, and the universe.

Division of Jainism

• The division in Jainism happened by the end of the fourth century BC.

• A serious famine occurred in the Ganges valley. Various Jin monks led by Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya went to Sravanbela Gola in Karnataka. These came to be known as Digambaras. They follow the tenets of religion strictly.

• The monks who stayed back in North India were led by Sthulabhadra; he changed the code of conduct for the monks. This sect became more liberal and started wearing white clothes. Hence they came to be known as Svetambaras.

7. Chola Dynasty : Brief Overview On Rulers, Literature, Trade and architecture (southern India)

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

CHOLA DYNASTY INTRODUCTION

• It was a Tamil dynasty of Southern India, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in world history.
• It aroused in the 9^th century which brought a large part of the Peninsula under their control.
• With a strong Navy, they conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives and had a strong foreign trade.
• The early periods of the Chola rule saw the onset of the Sangam literature. Kantaman was one of the prominent rulers of this era.
• The medieval period was the era of absolute power and development for the Cholas.
• Later Kulottunga Chola took over Kalinga to establish a strong rule. This magnificence lasted until the arrival of the Pandyas in the early 13^th

Some prominent pillars of the Chola Empire:

Vijayalaya

• He founded the Chola Empire.
• He took over the Tanjore kingdom in the 8^th century and led to the rise of the mighty Cholas by defeating the Pallavas. Tanjore was hence made the first capital of the eminent Chola Empire.

Aditya I

• He succeeded Vijayalaya to become the ruler of the empire.
• He defeated king Aprajita and the empire gained massive power under his reign.
• He conquered the Pandya King along with the Vadumbas and establishes control over the Pallavas power in the region.

Rajendra Chola I

• He succeeded his father Rajaraja Chola I.
• He was the first to venture to the bank of Ganges.
• He was popularly called the Victor of the Ganges.
• He instituted a new capital at the banks of Kaveri called Gangaikondacholapuram where he received the title of ‘Gangaikonda’. This period is referred to as the golden age of the Cholas.
• He also undertook a naval expedition against revived Srivijaya Empire of Indo- China.
• After his rule, the kingdom witnessed a widespread downfall.

Chola Government

• The King administered his territories with advice from his Council of Ministers.
• Chola administration:
• Mandalams – provinces
• Valanadu – minor provinces
• Nadu – district
• Kurram – a group of villages
• Royal roads were built and irrigation projects were undertaken.
• A general assembly of the village was called the Mahasabha.
• Gathering of adult men in Brahmana villages which were called Agraharas.
• The system of rule was such that each village acted as a self- governing unit during the era of the Cholas but the King remained the central authority who would make the major decisions and carry out the governance.

Cultural life

• They were great builders of cities (Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram), large palaces, spacious gardens, and terraces, etc.
• The Dravidian style of temple architecture attained its climax. The temple had become so elaborate like a mini-city and enjoyed revenue-free grants of land for its expenses.
• Kailasanathar temple in Kanchi, Brihadeeswara temple in Tanjore are some examples of Dravidian architecture.
• Holy Scriptures and the ancient Vedas were taught to students.
• Societal structure at this time was divided amongst Brahmins and Non-Brahmins.
• Several gods and goddesses were worshipped with Shiva being a popular source of strength for the faithful.
• The Srirangam temple stands to be the highlight of this era. It was submerged in water for centuries and was renovated later to its former glory.
• Several sites which include the Brihadeeswara temple and the Airavatesvara temple has been classified as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
• Sculptures of gods and goddesses have been carved out of bronze and serve as a golden reminder of this period.
• Along with devotional literature, Jain and Buddhist writings also got appreciation and recognition during this phase.
• The popular Nalayira Divya Prabhandham from this period is a compilation of 4000 Tamil verses and is widely savored by literary scholars even to this day.
• Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna are regarded as the three gems of Kannada poetry.

Thus, the Cholas and their reign mark a remarkable period of medieval history that saw a massive cultural spurt along with a growth in civilization and it's meaning. It symbolizes not only a period of rapid advancement but also a magnificent time to look back at and learn from.

8. King Harsha: Ruler Of North India (Vardhana Dynasty), Ancient Indian History

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

King Harshavardhana

• He was an Indian emperor who ruled North India from 606 to 647 CE.
• He was born in 590 AD.
• He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana who defeated the Alchon Huna invaders.
• He belonged to Pushyabhuti also called Vardhana dynasty.
• He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana Buddhism.
• He was married to Durgavati.
• He had two sons and a daughter. His daughter was married to the king of Vallabhi whereas his sons were killed by his own minister.

King Harshavardhana Ascension

• After Prabhakarvardhana died, his elder son Rajyavardhana ascended to the throne of Thanesar.
• Harsha had a sister, Rajyashri who was married to King Grahavarman of Kannauj. Shashanka, the Gauda King killed Grahavarman and kept Rajyashri prisoner. This prompted Rajyavardhana to fight against Shashanka, but Shashanka killed Rajyavardhana.
• This led the 16 year old Harshavardhana to ascend the throne of Thanesar in 606 AD.
• He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder and rescue his sister.
• For this, he forged an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king. Harsha and Bhaskaravarman marched against Shashanka. Ultimately Shashanka left for Bengal and Harsha became the King of Kannauj also.

Empire of King Harshavardhana

• On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj.
• He made Kannauj his new capital.
• He ruled over a vast territory consisting of eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa under their control. Nepal had accepted his overlordship.
• He also defeated the Vallabhi King in Gujarat.
• Most important battle fought by Harshavardhan was against Chalukyan ruler Pulakeshin II with the ambition to extend his empire beyond Narmada. Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin mentions that Harsha was defeated.
• There were two types of territories under Harsha, one was directly under him and the other was feudatories.
• Direct territories – Central provinces, Bengal, Kalinga, Gujarat.
• Feudatories – Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, Sind, Nepal.
• Harsha’s reign marked the beginning of feudalism in India.

Administration

• He began the practice of granting land to officers in lieu of salary.
• Taxation was light and forced labor was also rare.
• One-sixth of the crop produce was collected as land tax.
• His army consisted of four divisions- foot, chariot, horse and elephant. It was much more than that of the Mauryas.
• There were provisions of cruel punishments, similar to the Mauryan times.

Economy and Society

• There was four-fold Varna system comprising Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
• Brahmins received land grants from the king, Kshatriyas were the ruling class, Vaishyas were involved in trading and Shudras practiced agriculture.
• Women lost the privilege of Swayamvar.
• Widow Remarriage was not permitted.
• The practice of dowry and Sati became prevalent.
• Trade and commerce declined, as depicted by a decrease in trade centers.
• This decline also affected handicraft and agriculture. This also led rise of self-sufficient village economy.

Developments in Art and Culture

• It was based on Gupta style primarily. Hiuen Tsang refers to an 8 feet tall copper Buddha statue. He also talks of a multistory monastery at Nalanda.
• In Chhattisgarh at Sirpur, a brick temple of Lakshman is surviving example of architecture during Harsha’s period.
• Harsha was great patron of learning and himself authored three plays- Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, Nagananda.
• He also patronized Nalanda University.
• Harshavardhana’s biographer was Banabhatta, who wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.
• In Harshavardhana’s court other notable figures were Matangadivakara and Barthrihari.

Religion during Harsha’s reign

• Harsha was a Shiva follower in the beginning but gradually embraced Buddhism.
• He was a tolerant ruler. It is believed that Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.
• Harsha prohibited animal slaughter for food in his kingdom.
• He also erected various Stupas and established traveler’s rest house all over his kingdom.
• He conducted a gathering of representatives of all religions once in every five years.
• Two of them are important:

1. Kannauj Assembly
2. It was presided over by Hiuen Tsang.
3. 20 kings, 1000 scholars of Nalanda University, 3000 Brahmins and Jains attended this assembly at Kannauj.

• It continued till twenty three days.

1. Hiuen Tsang explained and established superiority of values of Mahayana doctrine over others.
2. However, violence broke out and an assassination attempt was made on Harsha’s life.

• Allahabad Assembly

1. It was held for 75 days where quinquennial distribution by the king to the people happened.
2. Hiuen Tsang was invited by Harshavardhan to withdraw this sixth distribution of alms and gifts at Allahabad.

• Hiuen Tsang writes that Harsha actually gave away everything in the royal treasury.

Decline of Harsha’s Kingdom

• Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years. Since he died without any heirs, his empire disintegrated very soon after his death.
• He was the last king to rule over a vast empire of India before the invasion which was led by Muhammad bin Qasim.

9. The Sangam Age : Sangam Literature And Books

Priyansha_Thapa 01 Jan 1970

Sangam Age

• It is a period when ‘Sangam poems’ were composed in South India.
• The Sangam Age was the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala and parts of Sri Lanka spanning from the 6^th century BCE to 3^rd century CE.
• It was named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the city of Madurai.

Sangam literature and books

• Sangam literature also referred to as Cankam literature connotes the ancient Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South India.
• Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical.
• Some of the scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era spanned from 300 BCE to 300 CE, while others suggest it before 300 CE.
• Sangam literature arose over three periods, each stretching over many millennia.

Tradition

• According to Tamil legends, there were three Sangams held in ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
• The first Sangam is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
• The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
• The third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

Authors

• It was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous.
• According to K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, the poets came from diverse backgrounds; some were from a royal family, some merchants, some Brahmins, some farmers.
• At least 27 of the poets were women.

• The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettuthogai, Pattupattu, Patinenkilkanakku, and two epics named Silappathikaram and Manimekalai.

Tolkappiyam(second Sangam) :

• Composed by Tolkappiyar.
• Oldest extant Tamil work till date.
• Offers information on social life, human psychology, political and economic conditions during the Sangam Age.
• Also discusses Tamil grammar.
• It is divided into three sections, each section further divided into nine chapters.
• Contains a total of 1612 sutras which are extensive in their range.

Third Tamil Sangam

The compositions of the third Sangam are classified into eight anthologies known as Ettuthogai and ten idylls known as Pattupattu.

Ettuthogai

It consists of the following works:

1. Narrinai
2. Kuruntokai

• Ainkurunuru (author - Ma Lokesvaran)

1. Patirruppattu
2. Paripatal
3. Kalittokai

• Ahanuru
• Purananuru

Pattupattu

It consists of the following works:

1. Tirumurukarruppatai(composed by Nakkiranar)
2. Cirupanarruppatai

• Perumbanarruppadai

1. Pattinappalai
2. Maduraikanchi
3. Porunararruppatai

• Kurincippattu
• Netunalvatai

1. Malaipatukatam
2. Mullaippattu

They mainly deal with moral values. The most important among them is the Thirukkural, also known as the Kural.

Tirukkural

• First Dravidian work for ethics.
• Comprises of 1330 couplets.
• It has been translated into many languages.
• It discusses epics, love, ad polity and governance.
• Authored by Thiruvalluvar.

Post Sangam Age

This period lasted from 200 to 600 CE. This age saw the composition of five great epics in Tamil namely, Silappathikaram, Manimekalai, Jivaka Chintamani, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi. There are also five minor works authored by Jain writers.

Silappathikaram

• Composed by Ilango Adigal.
• The epic is a tragic love story of an ordinary couple, Kannaki and her husband Kovalan.
• It is a story of love and rejection, happiness and pain, good and evil like all classic epics of the world.
• The poem gives a lot of insight into contemporary Tamil society, polity, values and social life of the people.

Manimekalai

• Composed by Chithalai Chathanar.
• It is a sequel to Silappathikaram.
• The author’s aim was to propagate Buddhism in South India as the work espouses the values of Buddhism over other religions of the time.

End of Sangam Age

• The Sangam Period slowly witnessed its decline towards the end of the 3^rd century AD.
• The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country post-Sangam period between 300 AD to 600AD, whose period was called an interregnum or ‘dark side’ by earlier historians.